sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  96        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  98        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  99        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 100        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 102        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 103        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 104        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 105        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 106        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 109        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 112        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 113        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 114        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 115        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 116        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 117        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 118        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 119        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 125        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 127        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 129            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 130        ),
 131        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 133        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 134        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 135        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 136        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 138        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 139        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 140        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 141        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 143        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 144        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 145        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 149        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 150        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 151        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 152        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 153        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 154        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 155        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 156        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 159    }
 160
 161    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 162    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 163    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 164
 165    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 166    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 167    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 168
 169    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 170    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 171
 172    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 173    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 174
 175    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 176    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 177
 178    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 179    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 180
 181    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 182    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 183
 184    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 185    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 186
 187    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 188    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 189
 190    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 191    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 192
 193    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 194    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 195
 196    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 197    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 198
 199    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 200    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 201
 202    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 203    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 204
 205    # Whether join hints should be generated
 206    JOIN_HINTS = True
 207
 208    # Whether table hints should be generated
 209    TABLE_HINTS = True
 210
 211    # Whether query hints should be generated
 212    QUERY_HINTS = True
 213
 214    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 215    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 216
 217    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 218    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 219
 220    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 221    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 222
 223    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 224    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 225
 226    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 227    RETURNING_END = True
 228
 229    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 230    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 231
 232    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 233    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 234
 235    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 236    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 237
 238    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 239    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 240
 241    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 242    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 243    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 244    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 245
 246    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 247    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 248
 249    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 250    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 251
 252    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 253    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 254
 255    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 256    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 257
 258    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 259    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 260
 261    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 262    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 263
 264    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 265    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 266
 267    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 268    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 269
 270    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 272
 273    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 274    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 275
 276    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 277    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 278
 279    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 280    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 281
 282    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 283    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 284
 285    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 286    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 287
 288    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 289    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 290
 291    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 292    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 293
 294    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 295    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 296
 297    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 298    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 299
 300    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 301    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 302
 303    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 304    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 305
 306    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 307    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 308
 309    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 310    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 311
 312    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 313    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 314
 315    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 316    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 317
 318    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 319    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 320
 321    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 322    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 323    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 324
 325    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 326    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 327
 328    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 329    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 330
 331    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 332    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 333
 334    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 335    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 336
 337    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 338    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 339
 340    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 341    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 342
 343    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 344    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 345    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 346    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 347
 348    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 349    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 350
 351    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 352    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 353
 354    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 355    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 356
 357    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 358    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 359
 360    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 361    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 362
 363    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 364    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 365
 366    # The HEX function name
 367    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 368
 369    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 370    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 371
 372    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 373    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 374
 375    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 376    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 377
 378    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 379    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 380
 381    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 382    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 383
 384    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 385    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 386
 387    # Whether nullable types can be constructed, e.g. `Nullable(Int64)`
 388    SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES = True
 389
 390    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 391    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 392
 393    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 394        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 395        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 396        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 401        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 402        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 403        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 404    }
 405
 406    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 407        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 408        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 409        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 410        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 411        "DAYS": "DAY",
 412        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 413        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 414        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 415        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 416    }
 417
 418    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 419        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 420        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 421        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 422        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 423            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 424            if e.args.get("windows")
 425            else ""
 426        ),
 427        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 428    }
 429
 430    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 431
 432    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 433
 434    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 435    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 436
 437    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 438        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 440        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 444        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 446        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 451        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 453        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 462        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 463        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 464        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 465        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 466        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 467        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 469        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 471        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 472        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 477        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 478        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 479        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 480        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 481        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 483        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 486        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 489        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 497        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 501        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 503        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 504        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 507        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 509        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 511        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 516        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 518        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 519        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 520        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522    }
 523
 524    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 525    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 526
 527    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 528    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 529        exp.Command,
 530        exp.Create,
 531        exp.Delete,
 532        exp.Drop,
 533        exp.From,
 534        exp.Insert,
 535        exp.Join,
 536        exp.Select,
 537        exp.SetOperation,
 538        exp.Update,
 539        exp.Where,
 540        exp.With,
 541    )
 542
 543    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 544    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 545        exp.Binary,
 546        exp.SetOperation,
 547    )
 548
 549    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 550    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 551        exp.Column,
 552        exp.Literal,
 553        exp.Neg,
 554        exp.Paren,
 555    )
 556
 557    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 558        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 559        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 560        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 561        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 562    }
 563
 564    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 565    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 566
 567    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 568
 569    __slots__ = (
 570        "pretty",
 571        "identify",
 572        "normalize",
 573        "pad",
 574        "_indent",
 575        "normalize_functions",
 576        "unsupported_level",
 577        "max_unsupported",
 578        "leading_comma",
 579        "max_text_width",
 580        "comments",
 581        "dialect",
 582        "unsupported_messages",
 583        "_escaped_quote_end",
 584        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 585        "_next_name",
 586    )
 587
 588    def __init__(
 589        self,
 590        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 591        identify: str | bool = False,
 592        normalize: bool = False,
 593        pad: int = 2,
 594        indent: int = 2,
 595        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 596        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 597        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 598        leading_comma: bool = False,
 599        max_text_width: int = 80,
 600        comments: bool = True,
 601        dialect: DialectType = None,
 602    ):
 603        import sqlglot
 604        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 605
 606        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 607        self.identify = identify
 608        self.normalize = normalize
 609        self.pad = pad
 610        self._indent = indent
 611        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 612        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 613        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 614        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 615        self.comments = comments
 616        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 617
 618        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 619        self.normalize_functions = (
 620            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 621        )
 622
 623        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 624        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 625            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 626        )
 627        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 628            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 629        )
 630
 631        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 632
 633    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 634        """
 635        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 636
 637        Args:
 638            expression: The syntax tree.
 639            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 640                it is safer to copy.
 641
 642        Returns:
 643            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 644        """
 645        if copy:
 646            expression = expression.copy()
 647
 648        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 649
 650        self.unsupported_messages = []
 651        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 652
 653        if self.pretty:
 654            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 655
 656        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 657            return sql
 658
 659        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 660            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 661                logger.warning(msg)
 662        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 663            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 664
 665        return sql
 666
 667    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 668        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 669        if (
 670            not expression.parent
 671            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 672            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 673        ):
 674            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 675
 676            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 677
 678        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 679            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 680
 681            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 682
 683        return expression
 684
 685    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 686        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 687            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 688        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 689
 690    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 691        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 692
 693    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 694        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 695
 696    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 697        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 698        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 699        return comment
 700
 701    def maybe_comment(
 702        self,
 703        sql: str,
 704        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 705        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 706        separated: bool = False,
 707    ) -> str:
 708        comments = (
 709            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 710            if self.comments
 711            else None
 712        )
 713
 714        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 715            return sql
 716
 717        comments_sql = " ".join(
 718            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 719        )
 720
 721        if not comments_sql:
 722            return sql
 723
 724        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 725
 726        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 727            return (
 728                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 729                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 730                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 731            )
 732
 733        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 734
 735    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 736        this_sql = (
 737            self.sql(expression)
 738            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 739            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 740        )
 741        if not this_sql:
 742            return "()"
 743
 744        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 745        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 746
 747    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 748        original = self.identify
 749        self.identify = False
 750        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 751        self.identify = original
 752        return result
 753
 754    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 755        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 756            return name.upper()
 757        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 758            return name.lower()
 759        return name
 760
 761    def indent(
 762        self,
 763        sql: str,
 764        level: int = 0,
 765        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 766        skip_first: bool = False,
 767        skip_last: bool = False,
 768    ) -> str:
 769        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 770            return sql
 771
 772        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 773        lines = sql.split("\n")
 774
 775        return "\n".join(
 776            (
 777                line
 778                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 779                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 780            )
 781            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 782        )
 783
 784    def sql(
 785        self,
 786        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 787        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 788        comment: bool = True,
 789    ) -> str:
 790        if not expression:
 791            return ""
 792
 793        if isinstance(expression, str):
 794            return expression
 795
 796        if key:
 797            value = expression.args.get(key)
 798            if value:
 799                return self.sql(value)
 800            return ""
 801
 802        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 803
 804        if callable(transform):
 805            sql = transform(self, expression)
 806        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 807            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 808
 809            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 810                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 811            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 812                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 813            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 814                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 815            else:
 816                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 817        else:
 818            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 819
 820        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 821
 822    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 823        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 824        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 825        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 826
 827    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 828        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 829        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 830        options = expression.args.get("options")
 831        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 832        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 833        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 834        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 835        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 836
 837    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 838        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 839            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 840        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 841        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 842
 843    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 844        return ".".join(
 845            self.sql(part)
 846            for part in (
 847                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 848                expression.args.get("db"),
 849                expression.args.get("table"),
 850                expression.args.get("this"),
 851            )
 852            if part
 853        )
 854
 855    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 856        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 857
 858        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 859            join_mark = ""
 860            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 861
 862        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 863
 864    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 866        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 867        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 868        return f"{position}{this}"
 869
 870    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 871        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 872        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 873        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 874        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 875        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 876        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 877        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 878        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 879
 880        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 881            kind = ""
 882
 883        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 884
 885    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 886        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 887        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 888        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 889
 890    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 891        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 892        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 893            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 894        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 895            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 896        else:
 897            persisted = ""
 898        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 899
 900    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 901        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 902
 903    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 904        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 905            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 906        else:
 907            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 908
 909        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 910
 911    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 912        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 913    ) -> str:
 914        this = ""
 915        if expression.this is not None:
 916            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 917            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 918
 919        start = expression.args.get("start")
 920        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 921        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 922        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 923        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 924        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 925        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 926        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 927        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 928        cycle_sql = ""
 929
 930        if cycle is not None:
 931            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 932            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 933
 934        sequence_opts = ""
 935        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 936            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 937            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 938
 939        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 940        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 941
 942        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 943
 944    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 945        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 946    ) -> str:
 947        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 948        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 949        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 950
 951    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 952        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 953    ) -> str:
 954        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 955
 956    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 957        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 958
 959    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 960        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 961
 962    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 963        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 964        if desc is not None:
 965            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 966        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 967
 968    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 970        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 971        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 972        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 973        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 974        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 975        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 976        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 977
 978    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 979        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 980
 981    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 982        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 983        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
 984        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 985        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 986
 987        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 988
 989        properties_sql = ""
 990        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 991            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 992        ):
 993            properties_sql = self.sql(
 994                exp.Properties(
 995                    expressions=[
 996                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 997                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 998                    ]
 999                )
1000            )
1001
1002            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1003                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1004            elif not self.pretty:
1005                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1006                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1007
1008        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1009        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1010
1011        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1012        if expression_sql:
1013            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1014
1015            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1016                postalias_props_sql = ""
1017                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1018                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1019                        exp.Properties(
1020                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1021                        ),
1022                        wrapped=False,
1023                    )
1024                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1025                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1026
1027        postindex_props_sql = ""
1028        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1029            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1030                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1031                wrapped=False,
1032                prefix=" ",
1033            )
1034
1035        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1036        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1037        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1038
1039        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1040        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1041        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1042
1043        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1044        if clustered is None:
1045            clustered_sql = ""
1046        elif clustered:
1047            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1048        else:
1049            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1050
1051        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1052        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1053            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1054                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1055                sep=" ",
1056                prefix=" ",
1057                wrapped=False,
1058            )
1059
1060        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1061
1062        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1063        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1064            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1065                exp.Properties(
1066                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1067                ),
1068                sep=" ",
1069                prefix=" ",
1070                wrapped=False,
1071            )
1072
1073        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1074        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1075        no_schema_binding = (
1076            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1077        )
1078
1079        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1080        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1081
1082        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1083        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1084
1085    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1086        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1087        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1088        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1089        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1090        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1091        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1092        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1093        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1094        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1095        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1096
1097        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1098        if cache is None:
1099            cache_str = ""
1100        elif cache is True:
1101            cache_str = " CACHE"
1102        else:
1103            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1104
1105        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1106        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1107
1108        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1109
1110    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1112        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1113        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1114        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1115
1116    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1117        style = expression.args.get("style")
1118        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1119        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1120
1121    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1122        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1123        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1124
1125    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1126        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1127        if with_:
1128            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1129        return sql
1130
1131    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1132        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1133        recursive = (
1134            "RECURSIVE "
1135            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1136            else ""
1137        )
1138
1139        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1140
1141    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1142        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1143
1144        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1145        if materialized is False:
1146            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1147        elif materialized:
1148            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1149
1150        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1151
1152    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1153        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1154        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1155        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1156
1157        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1158            columns = ""
1159            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1160
1161        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1162            alias = self._next_name()
1163
1164        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1165
1166    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1168        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1169            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1170        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1171
1172    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1174        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1175            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1176        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1177
1178    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1180        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1181            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1182        return this
1183
1184    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1186        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1187
1188        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1189            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1190            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1191        else:
1192            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1193            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1194
1195        if escape:
1196            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1197            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1198        else:
1199            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1200            escape_sql = ""
1201
1202        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1203            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1204
1205        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1206
1207    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1208        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1209        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1210
1211    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1212        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1213        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1214        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1215        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1216
1217    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1218        nested = ""
1219        values = ""
1220        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1221
1222        type_value = expression.this
1223        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1224            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1225        elif type_value != exp.DataType.Type.NULLABLE or self.SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES:
1226            type_sql = (
1227                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1228                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1229                else type_value
1230            )
1231        else:
1232            return interior
1233
1234        if interior:
1235            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1236                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1237                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1238                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1239                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1240                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1241            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1242                nested = f" {interior}"
1243            else:
1244                nested = f"({interior})"
1245
1246        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1247        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1248            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1249            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1250        ):
1251            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1252
1253        return type_sql
1254
1255    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1256        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1257        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1258        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1259        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1260
1261    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1263        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1264        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1265        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1266        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1267        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1268        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1269        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1270        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1271        if self.RETURNING_END:
1272            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1273        else:
1274            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1275        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1276
1277    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1279        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1280        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1281        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1282        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1283        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1284        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1285        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1286        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1287        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1288        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1289        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1290        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1291        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1292
1293    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1294        return self.set_operations(expression)
1295
1296    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1297        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1298
1299    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1300        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1301        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1302        count = expression.args.get("count")
1303        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1304        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1305            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1306        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1307        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1308
1309    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1310        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1311            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1312            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1313            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1314
1315        agg = expression.this
1316        agg_arg = agg.this
1317        cond = expression.expression.this
1318        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1319        return self.sql(agg)
1320
1321    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1322        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1323            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1324            return ""
1325
1326        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1327
1328    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1329        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1330        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1331        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1332        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1333        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1334        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1335        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1336        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1337        if include:
1338            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1339        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1340        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1341        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1342        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1343        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1344        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1345
1346        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1347
1348    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1349        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1350        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1351        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1352        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1353        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1354        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1355        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1356
1357        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1358
1359        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1360        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1361
1362    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1363        text = expression.name
1364        lower = text.lower()
1365        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1366        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1367        if (
1368            expression.quoted
1369            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1370            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1371            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1372        ):
1373            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1374        return text
1375
1376    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1377        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1378        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1379            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1380
1381        return text
1382
1383    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1384        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1385        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1386            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1387        return text
1388
1389    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1390        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1391        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1392        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1393        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1394        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1395
1396    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1397        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1398        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1399
1400    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1401        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1402
1403    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1404        root_properties = []
1405        with_properties = []
1406
1407        for p in expression.expressions:
1408            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1409            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1410                with_properties.append(p)
1411            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1412                root_properties.append(p)
1413
1414        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1415        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1416
1417        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1418            with_props = " " + with_props
1419
1420        return root_props + with_props
1421
1422    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1423        if properties.expressions:
1424            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1425        return ""
1426
1427    def properties(
1428        self,
1429        properties: exp.Properties,
1430        prefix: str = "",
1431        sep: str = ", ",
1432        suffix: str = "",
1433        wrapped: bool = True,
1434    ) -> str:
1435        if properties.expressions:
1436            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1437            if expressions:
1438                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1439                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1440        return ""
1441
1442    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1443        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1444
1445    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1446        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1447        for p in properties.expressions:
1448            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1449            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1450                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1451            else:
1452                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1453
1454        return properties_locs
1455
1456    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1457        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1458            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1459        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1460
1461    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1462        property_cls = expression.__class__
1463        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1464            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1465
1466        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1467        if not property_name:
1468            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1469
1470        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1471
1472    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1473        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1474            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1475            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1476
1477            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1478            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1479                like = f"({like})"
1480
1481            return like
1482
1483        if expression.expressions:
1484            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1485
1486        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1487        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1488
1489    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1490        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1491        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1492        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1493
1494    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1495        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1496        local = expression.args.get("local")
1497        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1498        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1499        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1500        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1501        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1502
1503    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1504        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1505        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1506        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1507
1508    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1509        if expression.args.get("default"):
1510            property = "DEFAULT"
1511        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1512            property = "ON"
1513        else:
1514            property = "OFF"
1515        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1516
1517    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1518        if expression.args.get("no"):
1519            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1520        if expression.args.get("default"):
1521            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1522
1523        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1524        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1525
1526    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1527        default = expression.args.get("default")
1528        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1529        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1530        if default or minimum or maximum:
1531            if default:
1532                prop = "DEFAULT"
1533            elif minimum:
1534                prop = "MINIMUM"
1535            else:
1536                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1537            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1538        units = expression.args.get("units")
1539        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1540        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1541
1542    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1543        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1544        always = expression.args.get("always")
1545        default = expression.args.get("default")
1546        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1547        never = expression.args.get("never")
1548
1549        if autotemp is not None:
1550            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1551        elif always:
1552            prop = "ALWAYS"
1553        elif default:
1554            prop = "DEFAULT"
1555        elif manual:
1556            prop = "MANUAL"
1557        elif never:
1558            prop = "NEVER"
1559        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1560
1561    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1562        no = expression.args.get("no")
1563        no = " NO" if no else ""
1564        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1565        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1566        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1567        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1568        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1569
1570    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1571        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1572            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1573        if expression.this:
1574            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1575            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1576            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1577
1578        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1579        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1580        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1581
1582    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1584
1585        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1586        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1587            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1588        else:
1589            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1590
1591        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1592
1593    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1594        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1595        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1596        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1597        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1598        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1599        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1600        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1601
1602    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1603        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1604        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1605        statistics_sql = ""
1606        if statistics is not None:
1607            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1608        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1609
1610    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1612        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1613        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1614        data_consistency = (
1615            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1616        )
1617        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1618        retention_period = (
1619            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1620        )
1621
1622        if this:
1623            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1624        else:
1625            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1626
1627        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1628
1629        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1630
1631    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1632        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1633        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1634
1635        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1636            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1637        else:
1638            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1639
1640        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1641        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1642        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1643        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1644        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1645        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1646        if is_function:
1647            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1648        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1649
1650        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1651        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1652        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1653        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1654        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1655        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1656        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1657        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1658
1659        if self.RETURNING_END:
1660            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1661        else:
1662            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1663
1664        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1665        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1666        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1667        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1668
1669        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}"
1670        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1671
1672    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1673        return self.set_operations(expression)
1674
1675    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1676        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1677
1678    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1679        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1680
1681    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1682        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1683        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1685        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1686        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1687
1688    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1689        return expression.name
1690
1691    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1692        return expression.name
1693
1694    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1695        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1696
1697        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1698        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1699
1700        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1701        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1702        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1703
1704        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1705        if expressions:
1706            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1707            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1708
1709        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1710
1711    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1712        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1713
1714    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1715        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1716        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1717        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1718        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1719        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1720        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1721        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1722        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1723        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1724        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1725        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1726        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1727        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1728
1729    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1730        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1731
1732    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1733        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1734        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1735        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1736        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1737
1738    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1741        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1742        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1743
1744    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1745        return ".".join(
1746            self.sql(part)
1747            for part in (
1748                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1749                expression.args.get("db"),
1750                expression.args.get("this"),
1751            )
1752            if part is not None
1753        )
1754
1755    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1756        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1757        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1758        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1759        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1760        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1761        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1762        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1763        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1764        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1765        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1766        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1767        joins = self.indent(
1768            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1769        )
1770        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1771
1772        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1773        if file_format:
1774            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1775            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1776            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1777
1778        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1779        if ordinality:
1780            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1781            alias = ""
1782
1783        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1784        if when:
1785            table = f"{table} {when}"
1786
1787        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1788        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1789
1790        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1791        if rows_from:
1792            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1793
1794        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1795
1796    def tablesample_sql(
1797        self,
1798        expression: exp.TableSample,
1799        sep: str = " AS ",
1800        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1801    ) -> str:
1802        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1803            table = expression.this.copy()
1804            table.set("alias", None)
1805            this = self.sql(table)
1806            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1807        else:
1808            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1809            alias = ""
1810
1811        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1812        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1813        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1814        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1815        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1816        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1817        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1818        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1819        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1820
1821        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1822        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1823            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1824
1825        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1826        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1827            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1828
1829        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1830        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1831            expr = f"({expr})"
1832
1833        return (
1834            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1835        )
1836
1837    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1838        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1839
1840        if expression.this:
1841            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1842            if not expressions:
1843                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1844
1845            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1846            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1847            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1848            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1849            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1850
1851        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1852        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1853        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1854
1855        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1856        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1857            field = f"IN ({field})"
1858
1859        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1860        if include_nulls is not None:
1861            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1862        else:
1863            nulls = ""
1864
1865        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1866        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1867        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1868
1869    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1870        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1871        kind = expression.text("kind")
1872        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1873        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1874
1875    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1876        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1877
1878    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1880        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1881        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1882        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1883        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1884        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1885        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1886        if self.RETURNING_END:
1887            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1888        else:
1889            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1890        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1891        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1892
1893    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1894        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1895
1896        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1897        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1898            args = self.expressions(expression)
1899            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1900            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1901            values = (
1902                f"({values})"
1903                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1904                else values
1905            )
1906            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1907
1908        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1909        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1910        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1911
1912        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1913
1914        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1915            row = tup.expressions
1916
1917            if i == 0 and column_names:
1918                row = [
1919                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1920                ]
1921
1922            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1923
1924        if self.pretty:
1925            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1926            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1927            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1928            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1929            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1930
1931        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1932        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1933        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1934
1935    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1936        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1937
1938    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1939        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1940        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1941        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1942
1943    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1944        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1945
1946    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1947        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1948        if group_by_all is True:
1949            modifier = " ALL"
1950        elif group_by_all is False:
1951            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1952        else:
1953            modifier = ""
1954
1955        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1956
1957        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1958        grouping_sets = (
1959            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1960        )
1961
1962        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1963        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1964            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1965        else:
1966            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1967            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1968
1969        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1970        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1971            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1972        else:
1973            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1974            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1975
1976        groupings = csv(
1977            grouping_sets,
1978            cube_sql,
1979            rollup_sql,
1980            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1981            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1982        )
1983
1984        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1985            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1986
1987        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1988
1989    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1990        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1991        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1992
1993    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1994        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1995        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1996        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1997        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1998        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1999        return start + connect
2000
2001    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2002        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2003
2004    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2005        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2006            side = None
2007        else:
2008            side = expression.side
2009
2010        op_sql = " ".join(
2011            op
2012            for op in (
2013                expression.method,
2014                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2015                side,
2016                expression.kind,
2017                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2018            )
2019            if op
2020        )
2021        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2022        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2023        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2024        using = expression.args.get("using")
2025
2026        if not on_sql and using:
2027            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2028
2029        this = expression.this
2030        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2031
2032        if on_sql:
2033            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2034            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2035            if using:
2036                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2037            else:
2038                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2039        elif not op_sql:
2040            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2041                return f" {this_sql}"
2042
2043            return f", {this_sql}"
2044
2045        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2046            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2047
2048        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2049
2050    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2051        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2052        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2053        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2054
2055    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2056        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2057
2058        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2059        if cross_apply is True:
2060            op = "INNER JOIN "
2061        elif cross_apply is False:
2062            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2063        else:
2064            op = ""
2065
2066        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2067
2068    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2069        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2070
2071        if expression.args.get("view"):
2072            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2073            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2074            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2075            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2076            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2077            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2078
2079        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2080        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2081        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2082
2083    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2085
2086        args = [
2087            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2088            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2089            if e
2090        ]
2091
2092        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2093        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2094        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2095        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2096
2097        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2098
2099    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2101        value = expression.expression
2102        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2103        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2104        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2105        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2106
2107    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2108        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2109        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2111        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2112        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2113        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2114        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2115        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2116
2117    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2118        expressions = (
2119            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2120        )
2121        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2122        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2123
2124    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2125        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2126
2127    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2128        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2129            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2130            return ""
2131
2132        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2133        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2134        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2135        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2136
2137        if wait is not None:
2138            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2139                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2140            else:
2141                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2142
2143        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2144
2145    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2146        text = expression.this or ""
2147        if expression.is_string:
2148            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2149        return text
2150
2151    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2152        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2153            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2154            text = "".join(
2155                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2156            )
2157
2158        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2159            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2160        )
2161
2162    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2163        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2164        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2165        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2166        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2167        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2168        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2169        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2170        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2171        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2172        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2173        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2174
2175    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2176        return "NULL"
2177
2178    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2179        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2180
2181    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2183        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2184        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2185        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2186        interpolated_values = [
2187            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2188            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2189        ]
2190        interpolate = (
2191            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2192        )
2193        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2194
2195    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2196        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2197        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2198        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2199        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2200        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2201        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2202        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2203
2204    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2205        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2206
2207    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2208        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2209
2210    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2211        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2212
2213    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2214        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2215        asc = not desc
2216
2217        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2218        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2219        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2220        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2221        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2222
2223        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2224
2225        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2226        nulls_sort_change = ""
2227        if nulls_first and (
2228            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2229        ):
2230            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2231        elif (
2232            nulls_last
2233            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2234            and not nulls_are_last
2235        ):
2236            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2237
2238        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2239        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2240            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2241            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2242                self.unsupported(
2243                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2244                )
2245                nulls_sort_change = ""
2246            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2247                if expression.this.is_int:
2248                    self.unsupported(
2249                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2250                    )
2251                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2252                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2253                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2254                nulls_sort_change = ""
2255
2256        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2257        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2258
2259        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2260
2261    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2262        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2263        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2264
2265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2266
2267        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2268
2269    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2270        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2271        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2272        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2273        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2274        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2275        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2276        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2277        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2278        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2279        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2280        definition_sqls = [
2281            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2282            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2283        ]
2284        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2285        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2286        body = "".join(
2287            (
2288                partition,
2289                order,
2290                measures,
2291                rows,
2292                after,
2293                pattern,
2294                define,
2295            )
2296        )
2297        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2298        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2299        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2300
2301    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2302        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2303
2304        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2305            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2306        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2307            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2308
2309        return csv(
2310            *sqls,
2311            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2312            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2313            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2314            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2315            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2316            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2317            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2318            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2319            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2320            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2321            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2322            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2323            self.options_modifier(expression),
2324            sep="",
2325        )
2326
2327    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2328        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2329        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2330
2331    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2332        return ""
2333
2334    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2335        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2336    ) -> t.List[str]:
2337        return [
2338            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2339            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2340        ]
2341
2342    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2343        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2344        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2345        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2346
2347    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2348        into = expression.args.get("into")
2349        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2350            into.pop()
2351
2352        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2353        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2354        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2355        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2356
2357        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2358        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2359            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2360            limit.pop()
2361        else:
2362            top = ""
2363
2364        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2365
2366        if kind:
2367            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2368                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2369            else:
2370                if kind == "STRUCT":
2371                    expressions = self.expressions(
2372                        sqls=[
2373                            self.sql(
2374                                exp.Struct(
2375                                    expressions=[
2376                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2377                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2378                                        else e
2379                                        for e in expression.expressions
2380                                    ]
2381                                )
2382                            )
2383                        ]
2384                    )
2385                kind = ""
2386
2387        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2388        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2389        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2390        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2391        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2392            expression,
2393            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2394            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2395            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2396        )
2397
2398        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2399
2400        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2401            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2402                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2403            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2404                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2405            else:
2406                table_kind = ""
2407            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2408
2409        return sql
2410
2411    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2413        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2414        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2415
2416    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2417        if expression.expressions:
2418            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2419        return ""
2420
2421    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2422        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2423        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2424        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2425        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2426        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2427        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2428        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2429
2430    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2432        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2433
2434    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2436        kind = expression.text("kind")
2437        if kind:
2438            kind = f"{kind}."
2439        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2440
2441    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2442        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2443
2444    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2445        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2446        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2447        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2448        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2449        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2450
2451    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2452        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2453        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2454
2455    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2456        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2457            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2458            order = expression.args.get("order")
2459
2460            if limit or order:
2461                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2462
2463                if limit:
2464                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2465                if order:
2466                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2467                return self.sql(select)
2468
2469        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2470        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2471
2472        while stack:
2473            node = stack.pop()
2474
2475            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2476                stack.append(node.expression)
2477                stack.append(
2478                    self.maybe_comment(
2479                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2480                        comments=node.comments,
2481                        separated=True,
2482                    )
2483                )
2484                stack.append(node.this)
2485            else:
2486                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2487
2488        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2489        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2490        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2491
2492    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2493        return self.set_operations(expression)
2494
2495    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2496        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2497        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2498        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2499        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2500
2501    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2502        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2503
2504        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2505        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2506
2507        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2508            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2509                alias.append("columns", offset)
2510
2511        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2512            columns = alias.columns
2513            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2514        else:
2515            alias = self.sql(alias)
2516
2517        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2518        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2519            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2520        else:
2521            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2522                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2523            elif offset:
2524                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2525            else:
2526                suffix = alias
2527
2528        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2529
2530    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2531        return ""
2532
2533    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2534        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2535        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2536
2537    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2539        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2540        order = expression.args.get("order")
2541        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2542        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2543        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2544        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2545
2546        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2547
2548        first = expression.args.get("first")
2549        if first is None:
2550            first = ""
2551        else:
2552            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2553
2554        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2555            return f"{this} {alias}"
2556
2557        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2558        return f"{this} ({args})"
2559
2560    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2561        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2562        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2563
2564    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2565        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2566        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2567        end = (
2568            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2569            or "CURRENT ROW"
2570        )
2571        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2572
2573    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2575        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2576        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2577
2578    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2580        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2581        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2582        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2583
2584    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2585        return apply_index_offset(
2586            expression.this,
2587            expression.expressions,
2588            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2589        )
2590
2591    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2592        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2593        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2594        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2595
2596    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2597        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2598
2599    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2600        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2601        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2602            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2603                this = self.wrap(this)
2604            return f"ANY{this}"
2605        return f"ANY {this}"
2606
2607    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2608        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2609
2610    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2612        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2613
2614        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2615            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2616            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2617
2618        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2619
2620        if default:
2621            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2622
2623        statements.append("END")
2624
2625        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2626            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2627
2628        return " ".join(statements)
2629
2630    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2631        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2632        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2633        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2634
2635    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2636        order = expression.args.get("order")
2637        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2638        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2639
2640    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2642        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2643        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2644
2645    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2646        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2647
2648        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2649            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2650        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2651            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2652        else:
2653            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2654
2655    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2656        args = expression.expressions
2657        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2658            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2659
2660        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2661            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2662
2663        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2664            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2665
2666        return args
2667
2668    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2669        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2670
2671        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2672        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2673            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2674
2675        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2676
2677    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2678        return self.func(
2679            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2680        )
2681
2682    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2683        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2684        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2685
2686    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2687        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2688        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2689        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2690        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2691        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2692        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2693        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2694        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2695
2696    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2697        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2698        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2699        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2700        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2701
2702    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2703        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2704
2705    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2706        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2707        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2708        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2709
2710    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2711        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2712
2713    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2714        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2715        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2716            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2717
2718        return path
2719
2720    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2721        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2722            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2723            if not callable(transform):
2724                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2725                return ""
2726
2727            return transform(self, expression)
2728
2729        if isinstance(expression, int):
2730            return str(expression)
2731
2732        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2733            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2734            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2735        else:
2736            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2737            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2738
2739        return escaped
2740
2741    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2742        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2743
2744    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2745        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2746        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2747
2748        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2749        if unique_keys is not None:
2750            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2751        else:
2752            unique_keys = ""
2753
2754        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2755        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2756        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2757        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2758
2759        return self.func(
2760            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2761            *expression.expressions,
2762            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2763        )
2764
2765    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2766        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2767
2768    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2769        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2770        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2771        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2772        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2773        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2774        return self.func(
2775            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2776        )
2777
2778    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2780        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2781        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2782        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2783        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2784        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2785        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2786        return self.func(
2787            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2788            this,
2789            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2790        )
2791
2792    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2793        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2794        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2795        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2796
2797        if nested_schema:
2798            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2799
2800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2801        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2802        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2803        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2804
2805    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2806        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2807
2808    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2810        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2811        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2812        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2813        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2814        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2815        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2816        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2817        return self.func(
2818            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2819        )
2820
2821    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2823        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2824        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2825        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2826        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2827        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2828
2829    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2831        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2832        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2833        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2834        with_ = (
2835            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2836            if expressions
2837            else ""
2838        )
2839        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2840
2841    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2842        query = expression.args.get("query")
2843        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2844        field = expression.args.get("field")
2845        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2846
2847        if query:
2848            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2849        elif unnest:
2850            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2851        elif field:
2852            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2853        else:
2854            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2855
2856        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2857
2858    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2859        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2860
2861    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2862        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2863        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2864            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2865        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2866
2867        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2868            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2869            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2870
2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2872        if this:
2873            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2874            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2875
2876        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2877
2878    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2879        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2880
2881    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2883        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2884        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2885        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2886        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2887        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2888
2889    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2890        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2891
2892    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2893        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2894        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2895
2896    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2897        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2898        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2899        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2900        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2901
2902    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2903        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2904
2905    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2906        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2907        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2908        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2909
2910    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2911        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2912
2913        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2914        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2915
2916        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2917            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2918        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2919            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2920
2921        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2922
2923    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2924        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2925
2926    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2928        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2929        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2930
2931    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2933        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2934        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2935
2936    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2938        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2939        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2940
2941    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2942        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2943
2944    def and_sql(
2945        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2946    ) -> str:
2947        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2948
2949    def or_sql(
2950        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2951    ) -> str:
2952        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2953
2954    def xor_sql(
2955        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2956    ) -> str:
2957        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2958
2959    def connector_sql(
2960        self,
2961        expression: exp.Connector,
2962        op: str,
2963        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2964    ) -> str:
2965        if stack is not None:
2966            if expression.expressions:
2967                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2968            else:
2969                stack.append(expression.right)
2970                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2971                    for comment in expression.comments:
2972                        if comment:
2973                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2974                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2975            return op
2976
2977        stack = [expression]
2978        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2979        ops = set()
2980
2981        while stack:
2982            node = stack.pop()
2983            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2984                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2985            else:
2986                sql = self.sql(node)
2987                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2988                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2989                else:
2990                    sqls.append(sql)
2991
2992        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2993        return sep.join(sqls)
2994
2995    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2996        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2997
2998    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2999        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3000
3001    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3002        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3003
3004    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3005        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3006
3007    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3008        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3009
3010    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3011        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3012
3013    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3014        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3015        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3016        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3017        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3018        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3019        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3020        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3021
3022    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3023        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3024        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3025
3026    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3027        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3028            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3029        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3030
3031    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3032        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3033
3034    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3036        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3037        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3038        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3039        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3040        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3041
3042    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3043        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3044        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3045        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3046        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3047        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3048        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3049        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3050        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3051        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3052
3053    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3054        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3055        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3056        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3057        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3058
3059        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3060            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3061
3062        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3063
3064    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3065        return "BEGIN"
3066
3067    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3068        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3069        if chain is not None:
3070            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3071
3072        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3073
3074    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3075        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3076        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3077        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3078
3079    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3080        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3081
3082        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3083        if dtype:
3084            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3085            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3086            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3087            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3088            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3089
3090        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3091        if default:
3092            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3093
3094        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3095        if comment:
3096            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3097
3098        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3099        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3100
3101        if not drop and not allow_null:
3102            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3103
3104        if allow_null is not None:
3105            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3106            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3107
3108        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3109
3110    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3112        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3113            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3114        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3115
3116    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3117        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3118        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3119        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3120        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3121        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3122
3123    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3124        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3125            # Remove db from tables
3126            expression = expression.transform(
3127                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3128            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3130        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3131
3132    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3133        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3134        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3135        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3136        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3137
3138    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3139        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3140        return f"SET {exprs}"
3141
3142    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3143        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3144
3145        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3146            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3147        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3148            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3149        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3150            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3151        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3152            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3153        else:
3154            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3155
3156        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3157        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3158        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3159        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3160        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3161        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3162        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3163        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3164
3165    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3166        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3167            return self.expressions(
3168                expression,
3169                key="actions",
3170                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3171                skip_first=True,
3172            )
3173        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3174
3175    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3176        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3177        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3178        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3179
3180    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3181        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3182
3183    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3184        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3185
3186        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3187            case = exp.case()
3188            for arg in expression.expressions:
3189                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3190            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3191
3192        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3193
3194        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3195        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3196        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3197
3198    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3199        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3200
3201    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3202        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3203
3204    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3205        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3206        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3207        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3208        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3209
3210    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3211        return self.sql(
3212            exp.Cast(
3213                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3214                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3215            )
3216        )
3217
3218    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3219        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3220            return self.func(
3221                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3222            )
3223        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3224
3225    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3226        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3227
3228        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3229            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3230
3231        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3232            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3233                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3234
3235        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3236            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3237                return self.sql(
3238                    exp.cast(
3239                        l / r,
3240                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3241                    )
3242                )
3243
3244        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3245
3246    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3248
3249    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3251
3252    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3253        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3254
3255    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3257
3258    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3259        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3260
3261    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3262        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3263
3264    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3266
3267    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3268        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3269
3270    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3271        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3272
3273    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3274        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3275
3276    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3277        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3278
3279    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3280        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3281            return self.sql(
3282                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3283            )
3284        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3285
3286    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3287        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3288
3289    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3290        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3291
3292    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3293        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3294
3295    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3296        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3297
3298    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3299        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3300
3301    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3302        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3303
3304    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3305        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3306
3307    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3308        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3309
3310    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3311        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3312
3313    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3314        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3315
3316    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3317        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3318
3319    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3320        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3321
3322    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3323        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3324
3325    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3326        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3327            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3328            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3329
3330        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3331
3332    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3333        this = expression.this
3334        expr = expression.expression
3335
3336        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3337            this, expr = expr, this
3338        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3339            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3340                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3341
3342            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3343
3344        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3345
3346    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3347        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3348        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3349        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3350        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3351        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3352
3353    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3354        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3355        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3356
3357    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3358        args = []
3359
3360        for key in expression.arg_types:
3361            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3362
3363            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3364                for value in arg_value:
3365                    args.append(value)
3366            elif arg_value is not None:
3367                args.append(arg_value)
3368
3369        if self.normalize_functions:
3370            name = expression.sql_name()
3371        else:
3372            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3373
3374        return self.func(name, *args)
3375
3376    def func(
3377        self,
3378        name: str,
3379        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3380        prefix: str = "(",
3381        suffix: str = ")",
3382    ) -> str:
3383        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3384
3385    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3386        arg_sqls = tuple(
3387            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3388        )
3389        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3390            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3391        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3392
3393    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3394        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3395
3396    def format_time(
3397        self,
3398        expression: exp.Expression,
3399        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3400        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3401    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3402        return format_time(
3403            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3404            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3405            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3406        )
3407
3408    def expressions(
3409        self,
3410        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3411        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3412        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3413        flat: bool = False,
3414        indent: bool = True,
3415        skip_first: bool = False,
3416        skip_last: bool = False,
3417        sep: str = ", ",
3418        prefix: str = "",
3419        dynamic: bool = False,
3420        new_line: bool = False,
3421    ) -> str:
3422        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3423
3424        if not expressions:
3425            return ""
3426
3427        if flat:
3428            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3429
3430        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3431        result_sqls = []
3432
3433        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3434            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3435            if not sql:
3436                continue
3437
3438            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3439
3440            if self.pretty:
3441                if self.leading_comma:
3442                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3443                else:
3444                    result_sqls.append(
3445                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3446                    )
3447            else:
3448                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3449
3450        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3451            if new_line:
3452                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3453                result_sqls.append("")
3454            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3455        else:
3456            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3457        return (
3458            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3459            if indent
3460            else result_sql
3461        )
3462
3463    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3464        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3465        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3466        if flat:
3467            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3468        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3469
3470    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3471        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3472        if not property_name:
3473            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3474        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3475
3476    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3477        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3478
3479    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3480        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3481
3482    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3483        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3484        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3485        expressions = (
3486            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3487        )
3488        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3489
3490    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3491        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3492        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3493        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3494
3495    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3496        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3497
3498    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3499        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3500        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3501        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3502        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3503
3504        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3505        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3506            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3507            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3508            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3509            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3510        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3511            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3512                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3513            else:
3514                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3515        else:
3516            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3517        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3518
3519    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3520        table = expression.this
3521        table_alias = ""
3522
3523        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3524        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3525            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3526            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3527
3528        this = self.sql(table)
3529        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3530        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3531        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3532        sep = self.sep()
3533
3534        return self.prepend_ctes(
3535            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3536        )
3537
3538    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3539        if expression.args.get("format"):
3540            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3541
3542        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3543
3544    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3545        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3546            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3547            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3548
3549        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3550        if not fmt:
3551            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3552            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3553
3554        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3555
3556    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3558        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3559        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3560        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3561        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3562
3563    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3564        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3565        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3566        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3567        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3568
3569    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3570        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3571
3572    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3573        return ""
3574
3575    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3576        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3577        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3578        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3579        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3580        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3581
3582    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3584        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3585
3586        if having:
3587            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3588
3589        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3590
3591    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3592        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3593        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3594        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3595        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3596        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3597        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3598        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3599        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3600        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3601        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3602        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3603        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3604        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3605
3606    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3607        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3608        if key_block_size:
3609            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3610
3611        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3612        if using:
3613            return f"USING {using}"
3614
3615        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3616        if parser:
3617            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3618
3619        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3620        if comment:
3621            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3622
3623        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3624        if visible is not None:
3625            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3626
3627        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3628        if engine_attr:
3629            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3630
3631        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3632        if secondary_engine_attr:
3633            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3634
3635        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3636        return ""
3637
3638    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3639        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3640        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3641
3642    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3643        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3644        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3646        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3647        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3648        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3649        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3650        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3651        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3652        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3653        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3654
3655    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3656        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3657            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3658
3659        case = exp.Case().when(
3660            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3661            expression.args["true"],
3662            copy=False,
3663        )
3664        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3665        if else_cond:
3666            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3667
3668        return self.sql(case)
3669
3670    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3671        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3672        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3673        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3674        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3675        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3676        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3677
3678    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3679        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3680
3681    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3682        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3683
3684    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3685        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3686        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3687        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3688        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3689        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3690        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3691
3692    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3694        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3695        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3696
3697    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3699        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3700        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3701
3702    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3703        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3704
3705    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3706        arg = expression.this
3707        if not arg.type:
3708            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3709
3710            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3711
3712        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3713            return self.sql(arg)
3714
3715        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3716        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3717
3718    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3719        this = expression.this
3720        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3721            return self.sql(this)
3722
3723        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3724
3725    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3726        this = expression.this
3727        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3728            return self.sql(this)
3729
3730        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3731
3732    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3733        this = expression.this
3734        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3735
3736        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3737            return self.sql(
3738                exp.cast(
3739                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3740                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3741                )
3742            )
3743
3744        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3745            return self.sql(this)
3746
3747        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3748
3749    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3750        return self.sql(
3751            exp.func(
3752                "DATEDIFF",
3753                expression.this,
3754                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3755                "day",
3756            )
3757        )
3758
3759    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3760        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3761            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3762
3763        unit = expression.text("unit")
3764        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3765            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3766
3767        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3768
3769    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3770        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3771
3772        return self.func(
3773            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3774        )
3775
3776    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3777        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3778            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3779            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3780            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3781            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3782
3783        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3784
3785        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3786        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3787            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3788
3789        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3790
3791    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3792        expression.set(
3793            "expressions",
3794            [
3795                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3796                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3797                else e
3798                for e in expression.expressions
3799            ],
3800        )
3801
3802        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3803
3804    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3805        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3806        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3807
3808        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3809
3810    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3811        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3812        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3813
3814        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3815
3816        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3817        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3818
3819        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3820        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3821
3822        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3823        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3824
3825        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3826        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3827
3828        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3829
3830    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3831    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3832    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3833        to = expression.this
3834        value = expression.expression
3835        style = expression.args.get("style")
3836        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3837        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3838
3839        if not to or not value:
3840            return ""
3841
3842        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3843        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3844            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3845
3846        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3847        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3848
3849        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3850        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3851            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3852
3853            style_value = style.name
3854            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3855            if not converted_style:
3856                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3857
3858            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3859
3860            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3861                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3862            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3863                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3864            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3865                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3866            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3867                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3868
3869        if not transformed:
3870            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3871
3872        return self.sql(transformed)
3873
3874    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3875        this = expression.this
3876        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3877            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3878            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3879
3880        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3881            return f".{this}"
3882
3883        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3884        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3885
3886    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3887        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3888        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3889
3890    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3891        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3892            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3893
3894            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3895
3896        return expression
3897
3898    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3899        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3900            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3901            mods = sorted(
3902                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3903                key=lambda x: 0
3904                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3905                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3906            )
3907
3908            if mods:
3909                mod = mods[0]
3910                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3911                this.meta["inline"] = True
3912                mod.this.replace(this)
3913                return self.sql(expression.this)
3914
3915            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3916
3917            if agg_func:
3918                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3919
3920        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3921
3922    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3923        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3924        if self.pretty:
3925            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3926        return string
3927
3928    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3929        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3930
3931        if expression.expressions:
3932            upper = option.upper()
3933
3934            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3935            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3936
3937            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3938            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3939            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3940            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3941
3942        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3943
3944        if not value:
3945            return option
3946
3947        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3948
3949        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3950
3951    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3952        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3953        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3954            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3955            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3956            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3957        else:
3958            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3959            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3960            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3961
3962        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3963        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3964
3965        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3966        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3967
3968        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3969        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3970
3971        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3972        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3973
3974        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3975
3976    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3977        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3978        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3979
3980        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3981        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3982        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3983        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3984
3985        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3986        params = self.expressions(
3987            expression,
3988            key="params",
3989            sep=sep,
3990            new_line=True,
3991            skip_last=True,
3992            skip_first=True,
3993            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3994        )
3995
3996        if params:
3997            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3998                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3999            elif not self.pretty:
4000                params = f" {params}"
4001
4002        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4003
4004    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4005        return ""
4006
4007    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4008        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4009        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4010        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4011        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4012        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4013
4014        if filter_col or retention_period:
4015            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4016
4017        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4018
4019    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4020        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4021    ) -> str:
4022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4023        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4024        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4025        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4026
4027    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4029        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4030        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4031
4032    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4033        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4034
4035    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4037        expr = expression.expression
4038
4039        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4040            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4041            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4042        else:
4043            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4044
4045        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4046
4047    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4048        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4049            return self.sql(expression.this)
4050
4051        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4052
4053    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4054        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4055        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4056
4057        if lower and upper:
4058            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4059        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4060
4061    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4062        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4063        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4064        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4065        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4066        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4067        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4068
4069        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4070
4071    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4072        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4073
4074        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4075        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4076            fill_pattern = "' '"
4077
4078        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4079
4080    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4081        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4082        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4083
4084    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4085        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4086
4087        parent = expression.parent
4088        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4089            parent = parent.parent
4090
4091        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4092            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4093
4094        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4095            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4096
4097        return self.sql(generate_series)
4098
4099    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4100        exprs = expression.expressions
4101        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4102            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4103        else:
4104            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4105
4106        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4107
4108    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4109        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4110            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4111
4112        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4113        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4114        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4115
4116        if source_tz and timestamp:
4117            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4118                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4119            )
4120
4121        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4122
4123        return self.sql(expr)